The format is in a Socratic dialogue where Scipio Aemilianus portrays a clever old man. Indeed, Cicero continues, any society that has had to rely upon force and law rather than custom and habit has already declined to near destruction if not into destruction itself. His social class and loyalty to the Republic ensured that he would "command the support and confidence of the people as well as the Italian middle classes". [164] Ben Jonson dramatised the conspiracy of Catiline in his play Catiline His Conspiracy, featuring Cicero as a character. His extensive writings include treatises on . In 9088 BC, he served both Pompeius Strabo and Lucius Cornelius Sulla as they campaigned in the Social War, though he had no taste for military life, being an intellectual first and foremost. Cicero explained how a rustic son of a farmer, who lives off the pleasures of his own land, would not have gained anything from committing patricide because he would have eventually inherited his father's land anyway. The work does not survive in a complete state, and large parts are missing. Marcus Tullius Cicero (/ s s r o / SISS--roh; Latin: [mar.ks tl.li.js k.k.ro]; 3 January 106 BC - 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the establishment of the Roman Empire. : "This was Cicero" (1940) p. 83, Gesine Manuwald, Cicero: Philippics 39, vol. [16] His works rank among the most influential in global culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of Roman history, especially the last days of the Roman Republic. His political career took place during the twilight of the ailing Roman Republic. The Republic is obviously a purely ideal Utopia; but even the state envisaged in Yet both are in strong contrast with Cicero's works. This development has been driven less by biographical approaches than by a range of new approaches to the corpus of his writings, which have revealed their seriousness and originality and, by so doing, illuminated the intellectual and social culture of the late Roman Republic . Cicero prefaces the narrative of each day with an introduction in which he speaks for himself. Cicero wanted to pursue a public career in politics along the steps of the cursus honorum. A republic, by its very essence, imitates the highest of creation, man endowed with understanding and free will. [90] He was given instructions to keep nearby Cappadocia loyal to King Ariobarzanes III, which he achieved 'satisfactorily without war'. This opened up the Roman East for a Parthian invasion, causing much unrest in Syria and Cilicia. It is the . It was during his consulship that the second Catilinarian conspiracy attempted to overthrow the government through an attack on the city by outside forces, and Cicero suppressed the revolt by summarily and controversially executing five conspirators without trial. [52] Taking this case was a courageous move for Cicero; patricide was considered an appalling crime, and the people whom Cicero accused of the murder, the most notorious being Chrysogonus, were favorites of Sulla. [88] After this, a cowed Cicero concentrated on his literary works. ), prominent Roman statesman and consul, preeminent orator, lawyer, and master of Latin prose, and significant moral and political philosopher, left a substantial written legacy. Eventually, he provoked the hostility of his fellow senator Cato, who told him that he would have been of more use to the cause of the optimates if he had stayed in Rome. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, becoming an integral [62] Cicero defended the use of force as being authorised by a senatus consultum ultimum, which would prove similar to his own use of force under such conditions. Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 106 B.C.E. Instead of getting caught up in despair, though, he's chosen to use his time to write. "[46] Caesar and Brutus as well as Servius Sulpicius Rufus sent him letters of condolence. [83] In his Oratio De Domo Sua Ad Pontifices, Cicero convinced the College of Pontiffs to rule that the consecration of his land was invalid, thereby allowing him to regain his property and rebuild his house on the Palatine. Marcus Cicero (106-43 B.C.) Cicero restored calm by his mild system of government. was a Greek philosopher who was considered the greatest orator of the late Roman Republic. Neither Cicero nor any of the other classical philosophers made this conceptual jump. [62], Most famously in part because of his own publicity[60] he thwarted a conspiracy led by Lucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow the Roman Republic with the help of foreign armed forces. He attacked Antony in a series of speeches he called the Philippics,[109] after Demosthenes's denunciations of PhilipII of Macedon. "[120] The English words Ciceronian (meaning "eloquent") and cicerone (meaning "local guide") derive from his name. Sulla's victory in the first of a series of civil wars led to a new constitutional framework that undermined libertas (liberty), the fundamental value of the Roman Republic. The surviving sections derive from excerpts preserved in later works and from an incomplete palimpsest uncovered in 1819. Cicero then journeyed to Rhodes to meet his former teacher, Apollonius Molon, who had previously taught him in Rome. Cicero's The Republic is an impassioned plea for responsible government written just before the civil war that ended the Roman Republic in a dialogue following Plato. This was perhaps to avoid the potential wrath of Sulla, as Plutarch claims,[34][35] though Cicero himself says it was to hone his skills and improve his physical fitness. In his influentialDefense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States(1787), which circulated at the Constitutional Convention, Adams traced the development of the balanced constitution from Aristotle to Cicero, his hero. Governor Gaius Verres hired the prominent lawyer of a noble family Quintus Hortensius Hortalus. [105] A letter Cicero wrote in February 43 BC to Trebonius, one of the conspirators, began, "How I could wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March! Cicero reflects on the current state of his life in exile. ), written just before the outbreak of civil war. Indeed, in explaining the potency of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson confessed thus: All its authority rests, then, on the harmonizing sentiments of the day, whether expressed in conversation, in letters, in printed essays, or the elementary books of public right, [such] as Aristotle, Cicero, Locke, Sidney, etc., >>>Plinys Problem With ChristianityAnd Ours, With the ideals of Western Civilization under intense assault, how should we evaluate Ciceros legacy? He had no respect for Mark Antony, who was scheming to take revenge upon Caesar's murderers. [137] Montesquieu produced his "Discourse on Cicero" in 1717, in which he heaped praise on the author because he rescued "philosophy from the hands of scholars, and freed it from the confusion of a foreign language". Cicero's first major philosophical work, The Republic, or de Re Publica, was completed in 54 BCE. shelter) within four hundred miles of Rome, Cicero went into exile. Cicero, seizing the opportunity offered by optimate fear of reform, was elected consul for the year 63 BC;[59][60] he was elected with the support of every unit of the centuriate assembly, rival members of the post-Sullan establishment, and the leaders of municipalities throughout postSocial War Italy. [167] He has also been played by such noted actors as Michael Hordern (in Cleopatra),[168] and Andr Morell (in the 1970 Julius Caesar). On Antony's instructions his hands, which had penned the Philippics against Antony, were cut off as well; these were nailed along with his head on the Rostra in the Forum Romanum according to the tradition of Marius and Sulla, both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. It is uncertain whether he was directly involved in politics for the following few years.[89]. [37] In Asia Minor, he met the leading orators of the region and continued to study with them. Evang. [97] On 30 July 50 BC Cicero left the province[98] to his brother Quintus, who had accompanied him on his governorship as his legate. The period covered by the letters of Cicero is one of the most interesting and momentous in the history of the world, and these letters afford a picture of the chief personages and most important events of that age from the pen of a man who was not only himself in the midst of the conflict, but who was a consummate literary artist. In 43b.c., assassins sent by Marc Anthony, his political rival, approached him with swords drawn. Athanasius, Contra gentes, 9, censures Plato for thus adoring an Artemis made with hands, and the fathers and medieval writers frequently cite the passage for Plato's regrettable concessions to polytheism"persuasio civilis" as Minucius Felix styles it. In later years the period between his return from exile (57) and the outbreak of the Civil War (49) may well have seemed to Cicero one of activity in affairs of State, but it was in fact the transference of the . By these speeches, Cicero wanted to prepare the Senate for the worst possible case; he also delivered more evidence, against Catiline. [160][162] During his life the area was the most desirable in Rome, densely occupied with Patrician houses including the Domus Publica of Julius Caesar and the home of Cicero's mortal enemy Clodius. In his political theory and his public career, Cicero embodied an outlook that is essential for a healthy democratic society: an authentic passion for justice. Cicero was greatly admired by influential Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo, who credited Cicero's lost Hortensius for his eventual conversion to Christianity,[127] and St. Jerome, who had a feverish vision in which he was accused of being "follower of Cicero and not of Christ" before the judgment seat. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Latin extracts of Cicero on Himself, translated by Charles Gordon Cooper, Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Political Speeches, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1969, Cicero, Marcus Tullius, De Officiis (On Duties), translated by, Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Selected Works, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1971, Boissier, Gaston, Cicron et ses amis. Medieval philosophers were influenced by Cicero's writings on natural law and innate rights. The first part detailed exactly the charge brought by Ericius. [71], In 60 BC, Julius Caesar invited Cicero to be the fourth member of his existing partnership with Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, an assembly that would eventually be called the First Triumvirate. Cicero seized upon the concept and made it the centerpiece of The Republic (54-51 b.c. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this deprecatory name when he entered politics, but refused, saying that he would make Cicero more glorious than Scaurus ("Swollen-ankled") and Catulus ("Puppy"). Cicero by Visconti. The writings of Marcus Tullius Cicero are often referred to by natural law theorists. More than any other authority from the classical world, the American Founders looked to Marcus Tullius Cicero (10643b.c. [101] When Caesar invaded Italy in 49 BC, Cicero fled Rome. Parenti presents Cicero's prosecution of the Catiline conspiracy as legally flawed at least, and possibly unlawful. He went there to see the observances of the festival of the goddess Bendis. In addition to his politics, Cicero was beloved among the Founders because of his eloquence. [60] His co-consul for the year, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, played a minor role. "[141] Jefferson names Cicero as one of a handful of major figures who contributed to a tradition "of public right" that informed his draft of the Declaration of Independence and shaped American understandings of "the common sense" basis for the right of revolution. Cicero's defense was an indirect challenge to the dictator Sulla, and on the strength of his case, Roscius was acquitted. [22], During this period in Roman history, "cultured" meant being able to speak both Latin and Greek. [131], Among Cicero's admirers were Desiderius Erasmus, Martin Luther, and John Locke. Revista Internacional de Derecho Romano (RIDROM) 10 (2013) 125. About this product. It took him 47 days to reduce the place, which fell in December. As it was the dominant advisory body to the various legislative assemblies rather than a judicial body, there were limits to its power; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile the standard options would not remove the threat to the state. He wrote to Atticus: "Your pleas have prevented me from committing suicide. Among his writings, around a dozen philosophical works have come down to us. He was an intelligent child from a wealthy family. Montesquieu famously developed a theory of the separation of powers: legislative, executive, and judicial. Although little is known about Cicero's mother, Helvia, it was common for the wives of important Roman citizens to be responsible for the management of the household. Cicero said of Plato's Dialogues, that if Zeus were to speak, he would use their language. [77][78][79] In his absence, Clodius, who lived next door to Cicero on the Palatine, arranged for Cicero's house to be confiscated by the state, and was even able to purchase a part of the property in order to extend his own house. [90][91] He served as proconsul of Cilicia from May 51 BC, arriving in the provinces three months later around August. Just as Plato drafted a vision of an ideal state in his Republic and followed that up with detailed provisions in his Laws, so . [102] Cicero traveled with the Pompeian forces to Pharsalus in 48 BC,[103] though he was quickly losing faith in the competence and righteousness of the Pompeian side. For all his faults and personal ego, Cicero also possessed a quality desperately lacking in our degraded political culture: the willingness to surrender power for the sake of the republic. [68] It cost an exorbitant sum, 3.5million sesterces, which required Cicero to arrange for a loan from his co-consul Gaius Antonius Hybrida based on the expected profits from Antonius's proconsulship in Macedonia. During the journey, Adams helped his son translate a famous address by Cicero in which he accused a Roman senator, Lucius Sergius Catilina, of planning to overthrow Romes republican government: That destruction which you have been long plotting against us ought to have already fallen on your own head. Castren and Pietil-Castren: "Antiikin ksikirja", De Burgh, W.G., "The legacy of the ancient world". In this, the republic reflects the very nature of man and his ability to know things through the three faculties of the mind: through the head (rationality); through the soul (imagination); and through the stomach (passion). Wiedemann describes the senatus consultum ultimum by the late republic as "little more than a fig-leaf by those who could muster a majority in the senate to legitimate the use of force". KLIO Beitrge zur alten Geschichte 67 (1985) 492497. He introduced several laws (the leges Clodiae) that made him very popular with the people, strengthening his power base, then he turned on Cicero by threatening exile to anyone who executed a Roman citizen without a trial. Cicero believed that a rational Providence oversaw the world, a world embedded in divine law: a set of moral and religious truths that govern the human condition. Idea of State. [73] Clodius used the triumvirate's backing to push through legislation that benefited them all. De Officiis, along with his Republic/Commonwealth and Laws, is Cicero's longstanding legacy to the West. His father was a member of Rome's growing middle class, known as Equestrians. [177] Llewellyn, Handcock and Barnett re-teamed in the Doctor Who audio-drama Tartarus (also produced by Big Finish) starring Peter Davison as the 5th Doctor. But perhaps his most important contribution to the American political order was his understanding of natural law. Augustus's bad conscience for not having objected to Cicero's being put on the proscription list during the Second Triumvirate led him to aid considerably Marcus Minor's career. The Orations listed Catiline and his followers' debaucheries, and denounced Catiline's senatorial sympathizers as roguish and dissolute debtors clinging to Catiline as a final and desperate hope. 129ff, Rawson, E.: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p. 25, Haskell, H.J. "[136] Voltaire was spurred to pen the drama as a rebuff to his rival Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crbillon's own play Catilina, which had portrayed Cicero as a coward and villain who hypocritically married his own daughter to Catiline. [21] Romans often chose down-to-earth personal surnames. They engineered the adoption of patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher into a plebeian family and had him elected as one of the ten tribunes of the plebs for 58 BC. Book 5 [19] His father was a well-to-do member of the equestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. On the conclusion of this case, Cicero came to be considered the greatest orator in Rome. [121][122] He is credited with transforming Latin from a modest utilitarian language into a versatile literary medium capable of expressing abstract and complicated thoughts with clarity. [citation needed], Shortly after completing his consulship, in late 62 BC, Cicero arranged the purchase of a large townhouse on the Palatine Hill previously owned by Rome's richest citizen, Marcus Licinius Crassus. "To do of their own accord what they are compelled to do by the law," he quotes from Xenocrates. [93] Besides this, he was extremely frugal in his outlays for staff and private expenses during his governorship, and this made him highly popular among the natives. Written in 44 B.C. They wanted a constitution that could weather the storms of faction, jealousy, and lust for power. Hamza, Gabor, Cicero und der Idealtypus des iurisconsultus. [143], Jim Powell starts his book on the history of liberty with the sentence: "Marcus Tullius Cicero expressed principles that became the bedrock of liberty in the modern world. Helixon 2227 (19821987) 281296. Clodius' gangs dogged him, hurling abuse, stones and even excrement. Cicero argues that the instituttions of the Roman state had been effectively torn asunder by the new party which under the Gracchi and later under other populist leaders aimed to divide Rome in two parts. Afterwards he led his army against the independent Cilician mountain tribes, besieging their fortress of Pindenissum. The villa was stripped of its fine frescoes and mosaics and then re-buried after 1763 it has yet to be re-excavated. [66], After the suppression of the conspiracy, Cicero was proud of his accomplishment. Nicolaus Copernicus, searching for ancient views on earth motion, said that he "first found in Cicero that Hicetas supposed the earth to move. Ciceros career was a cautionary tale. Fast Facts: Cicero [128] His ten-year-old son, the future president John Quincy, was with him when they sailed from Massachusetts in February 1778. Octavian was Caesar's adopted son and heir. [130], His voluminous correspondence, much of it addressed to his friend Atticus, has been especially influential, introducing the art of refined letter writing to European culture. "Would that he had been able to endure prosperity with greater self-control, and adversity with more fortitude!" [111], Cicero was one of the most viciously and doggedly hunted among the proscribed. Summary. It is thought that Cicero needed her money, particularly after having to repay the dowry of Terentia, who came from a wealthy family. During a time of political corruption and violence, he wrote on what he believed to be the ideal form of government. [149], Cicero also had an influence on modern astronomy. Cicero served as quaestor in western Sicily in 75 BC and demonstrated honesty and integrity in his dealings with the inhabitants. [c][155], Cicero's great repute in Italy has led to numerous ruins being identified as having belonged to him, though none have been substantiated with absolute certainty. According to the upper class mores of the day it was a marriage of convenience, but lasted harmoniously for nearly 30 years. [citation needed] While the senatus consultum ultimum gave some legitimacy to the use of force against the conspirators,[b] Cicero also argued that Catiline's conspiracy, by virtue of its treason, made the conspirators enemies of the state and forfeited the protections intrinsically possessed by Roman citizens. Cicero argued that the senatus consultum ultimum indemnified him from punishment, and he attempted to gain the support of the senators and consuls, especially of Pompey. [80], Cicero's exile caused him to fall into depression. [74] He arrived at Thessalonica, on 23 May 58BC. They represent Cicero's understanding of government and remain his most important works of political philosophy. Pzmny Law Review 2 (2014) 515. His unique style of oratory set him apart from the flamboyant Hortensius. The Republic of Cicero was greatly cherished by those who lived in and near his times; of which occasional evidences are found in the writings of antiquity. Lawyer, senator, consul, philosopherin each of these roles Cicero honed his reputation as one of Romes greatest orators. Cicero wrote two principle political treatises: "On the Republic" and "On the Laws," both named after similar works by his model philosopher, Plato. [95] Cicero eventually marched with two understrength legions and a large contingent of auxiliary cavalry to Cassius's relief. 49 Civil War between Caesar and Pompey - Cicero reluctantly follows Pompey to Greece. The writings of Marcus Tullius Cicero constitute one of the most renowned collections of historical and philosophical work in all of classical antiquity. But the tyranny of the emperors bridled the Romans so soon after its appearance, that Horace, Virgil, Seneca, Quintilian, Pliny, and even Tacitus, have not dared to praise it, lest they . Cicero seized upon the concept and made it the centerpiece ofThe Republic(5451b.c. . Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) is best known to posterity as a prominent statesman and orator in the tumultuous period of the late Roman republic. [69][70] At the beginning of his consulship, Cicero had made an arrangement with Hybrida to grant Hybrida the profitable province of Macedonia that had been granted to Cicero by the Senate in exchange for Hybrida staying out of Cicero's way for the year and a quarter of the profits from the province. Marcus Tullius Cicero was born in 106 BCE. [67] Many Romans at the time, led by Populares politicians Gaius Julius Caesar and patrician turned plebeian Publius Clodius Pulcher believed that Cicero's evidence against Catiline was fabricated and the witnesses were bribed. The sixth book ends with the Somnium Scipionis, the only part of the work that was preserved in the Middle Ages. However, it is more likely that Cicero's ancestors prospered through the cultivation and sale of chickpeas. [174], Samuel Barnett portrays Cicero in a 2017 audio drama series pilot produced by Big Finish Productions. [citation needed] He also delivered a speech 'On the consular provinces' (Latin: de provinciis consularibus)[87] which checked an attempt by Caesar's enemies to strip him of his provinces in Gaul. "Cicero's true importance in the history of political thought lies in the fact that he gave to the Stoic doctrine of natural law a . [126] Hamza, Gabor, L'optimus status civitatis di Cicerone e la sua tradizione nel pensiero politico. Description. The great innovation of the advocates of republicanism in the 17th and 18th centuries was to base their arguments for unalienable natural rights on a universal natural law. Cicero is . Cato the Younger rose in defense of the death penalty and the entire Senate finally agreed on the matter. The latter building is centered around a central hall with Doric columns and a coffered vault, with a separate nymphaeum, on five acres of land near Formia. He was viewed with sympathy by a large segment of the public and many people refused to report that they had seen him. It is no accident that Locke absorbed the writings of Cicero and deployed his natural-law concepts for his own revolutionary purposes. What is justice? [117], Cicero's career as a statesman was marked by inconsistencies and a tendency to shift his position in response to changes in the political climate. CC-BY-SA-4. Cicero, having executed members of the Catiline conspiracy four years previously without formal trial, was clearly the intended target. Of Cicero's books, six on rhetoric have survived, as well as parts of seven on philosophy. [153] Subsequent Roman and medieval Christian writers quoted liberally from his works De re publica (On the Commonwealth) and De Legibus (On the Laws), and much of his work has been recreated from these surviving fragments. Unlike Plato, Cicero begins each of the six books with a preface in his own voice, providing commentary on his own thought and framing his argument I At this time, he claimed that the republic would be restored along with him. The De Re Publica of Cicero is purportedly the record of a three day debate in B.C. Cicero, perhaps the most famous of the Roman philosophers, wrote an influential treatise on duties and obligations published after his death. In a letter to Varro on c. 20 April 46 BC, Cicero outlined his strategy under Caesar's dictatorship. The Bogomils considered him a rare exception of a pagan saint. 48 Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus, Cicero returns to Italy. His decades-long struggle to preserve Romes republicwith its mixed constitutionended here, in his seaside villa north of Naples. More importantly, the writings of Tully (as his name was Anglicized) were required reading for all educated people in 18th-century Britain and the United States. Died: December 7, 43 BC in Formia, Italy. As a result, the grateful Sicilians asked Cicero to prosecute Gaius Verres, a governor of Sicily, who had badly plundered the province. In St. Augustine's view Cicero misunderstood the nature of a republic to begin with. [94] Previous governors had extorted enormous sums from the provincials in order to supply their households and bodyguards. [118][119], Cicero has been traditionally considered the master of Latin prose, with Quintilian declaring that Cicero was "not the name of a man, but of eloquence itself. Formia, ItalyWhen the American struggle for independence was beginning to look like a fools errand, John Adams left for Paris to help Ben Franklin secure a military alliance with the French. Marcus Junius Brutus called out Cicero's name, asking him to restore the republic when he lifted his bloodstained dagger after the assassination. [138] Montesquieu went on to declare that Cicero was "of all the ancients, the one who had the most personal merit, and whom I would prefer to resemble. Although the Founders had access to every level of Western discourse on natural law, writes historian Carl J. Richard, they cited Cicero in support of the theory even more than in support of mixed government.. [70] In return Cicero gained a lavish house which he proudly boasted was "in conspectu prope totius urbis" (in sight of nearly the whole city), only a short walk away from the Roman Forum. "This work of Cicero, 'De Republica,' (say the Editors of the Cyclopdia Metropolitana,) consisted of a series of Discussions, in six books, on the Origin and Principles of Government. Some suggest that it is not in fact Cicero's tomb, but a monument built on the spot where Cicero was intercepted and assassinated while trying to reach the sea. Don't blame me for complaining. Man is a single species which has a share in divine reason and is bound together by a partnership in justice.. [27] In 87 BC, Philo of Larissa, the head of the Platonic Academy that had been founded by Plato in Athens about 300 years earlier, arrived in Rome. [129][additional citation(s) needed], Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters provided the impetus for searches for ancient Greek and Latin writings scattered throughout European monasteries, and the subsequent rediscovery of classical antiquity led to the Renaissance. Sulla's arrival heraldsat least for somea calmer command. Cicero's first major philosophical work is The Republic, and was completed in 54 BCE. [132] Following the invention of Johannes Gutenberg's printing press, De Officiis was the second book printed in Europe, after the Gutenberg Bible. Fifty-two of his speeches, including his Catiline Orations, delivered to the Roman senate in 63b.c., have survived. [25], Cicero's interest in philosophy figured heavily in his later career and led to him providing a comprehensive account of Greek philosophy for a Roman audience,[26] including creating a philosophical vocabulary in Latin. In the year 44 Cicero stated that he had written the Republic "when he held the rudder of the State." 1 This was true only in a comparative sense. ), Romes greatest statesman, as they sought to design a democratic republic that would not collapse into despotism. Cicero claimed that after the death of Tiberius Gracchus there were "two senates in one republic and two separate people. In Formia, two Roman-era ruins are popularly believed to be Cicero's mausoleum, the Tomba di Cicerone, and the villa where he was assassinated in 43 BC. Former Director, Simon Center for American Studies. [99] On his way back to Rome he stopped over in Rhodes and then went to Athens, where he caught up with his old friend Titus Pomponius Atticus and met men of great learning.[100].
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